![]() The DIVER project is a tracking study, and therefore information on the breeding areas in Greenland (−20° W 76° N −50° W 69° N), Svalbard (16° E 76° N 15° E 77° N), Norway (8° E 60° N–25° E 70° N) and northern Russia (41° E 66° N–103° E 73° N) of single individuals was available to be linked with haemosporidian parasite infection. We took blood samples from 45 red-throated divers captured between 54° N 7° E and 55° N 8° E in an internationally important non-breeding habitat, the eastern German Bight (North Sea) in winter and spring within the framework of the DIVER project. Within the Gaviidae family, an infection with Haemosporida has so far only been documented for great northern divers (common loons, Gavia immer), with infections of Plasmodium as well as Leucocytozoon. In this context, infestation with Haemosporida could have an additional negative effect and information about the presence or absence of these parasites is an important basis when considering cumulative effects. This seabird species is affected by increasing anthropogenic impacts, such as shipping traffic and offshore wind turbines in its non-breeding areas, to which this species reacts very sensitively. Red-throated divers spend the non-breeding season in the Atlantic Ocean, North- and Baltic Sea and transmission of blood parasite infections via biting insects is thus limited to the breeding season. Inland areas are rarely occupied during the breeding season as this species prefers to feed in marine habitats. Gavia stellata, colloquially known as the red-throated loon in America or the red-throated diver in Europe, has a Holarctic breeding distribution, inhabiting small lochs adjacent to coastal areas. Our study species, the red-throated diver Gavia stellata is a migratory Arctic-breeding seabird species for which there have been no known studies of haemosporidian parasites, to our knowledge. These vectors are mosquitos (Culicidae) which transmit Plasmodium, louse flies (Hippoboscidae) and biting midges (Ceratopogonidae) which transmit Haemoproteus, and blackflies (Simuliidae) which transmit Leucocytozoon. In the context of climate warming the prevalence and distribution of Haemosporida may change, particularly in high latitude areas and some of the dipteran vectors are quite common in arctic regions. In Antarctic regions Haemosporida were absent from seabirds, whereas in Arctic regions few records are known so far. The most common haemosporidian parasites found in seabirds were the genera Haemoproteus and Plasmodium, each showing infections for 13% of the species studied. However, there are interspecific differences in the prevalence of haemosporidian parasites and seabirds mostly have low levels or even a complete lack of infections. Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon are vector-borne parasites that cause avian malaria or malaria-like disease in birds. In summary, this study presents the first record of Haemosporida in red-throated divers and reports a new lineage of each, Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon GAVSTE01 and GAVSTE02, respectively.īirds are frequently infected with a number of intracellular blood parasites, including Haemosporida, or hematozoa, of the genera Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon. Haemosporida have not been detected in birds from Greenland (n = 2) and Svalbard (n = 2). ![]() We identified two previously unknown lineages, one each of Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon. For two birds that were infected no breeding regions could be assigned. We found a prevalence of Leucocytozoon of 11.0% in all birds sampled (n = 45), of 33.0% in birds breeding in Norway (n = 3) and of 8.3% in birds breeding in Arctic Russia (n = 25). Divers in this study were assigned to western Palearctic breeding grounds, namely Greenland, Svalbard, Norway and Arctic Russia. We used molecular methods and data from a related tracking study to reveal (i) if red-throated divers are infected with Haemosporida of the genera Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium and Haemoproteus, and (ii) how infection and prevalence are linked with the breeding regions of infected individuals. Red-throated divers were sampled during winter and spring in the eastern German Bight (North Sea). In this study we analyse the presence of Haemosporida in a previously unstudied migratory seabird species, the red-throated diver Gavia stellata. Haemosporida, vector-transmitted blood parasites, can have various effects and may also exert selection pressures on their hosts.
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